Martyr

The word "martyr" comes from the Greek *mártys*, meaning "witness." A martyr is someone who endures persecution and death because they either advocate for, renounce, or refuse to renounce or advocate a religious belief or another cause, as demanded by an outside party. In everyday speech, the term can also describe anyone who suffers a serious consequence while protesting or supporting a cause.

Within the story told by the community that remembers them, a martyr’s refusal to meet the demands leads to punishment or execution by an oppressor. The title "martyr" is a posthumous label given by the living to those they consider worthy of the concept, regardless of how the deceased might have wanted to be remembered. In this way, a martyr is a relational figure shaped by collective memory, helping a society define its boundaries. Originally, the term applied only to those who suffered for religious beliefs, but it has since expanded to include people killed for political causes.

Most martyrs are regarded as holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership and heroism in difficult circumstances. They play significant roles in religions and have also had notable effects in secular life, with figures like Socrates serving as examples.

In its original meaning, "witness" was used in both everyday life and the New Testament. Bearing witness was not meant to lead to death, though ancient writers and the New Testament show that witnesses often died for their testimonies. During the early Christian centuries, the term took on a new meaning: believers called to witness for their faith, enduring suffering or death as a result. This later sense entered English as a loanword. The death of a martyr, or the value placed on it, is called martyrdom. Early Christians saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, because of his crucifixion, and as the archetypal martyr.

The word "martyr" is now used in English for a wide variety of people. A female martyr may occasionally be called a "martyress."

In contemporary Middle Eastern cultures, the Arabic term *shahid* has more uses than the English "martyr." It can narrowly refer to someone killed for their religion, but more generally it means anyone who died a violent death, arguably a general "victim." A person is considered a martyr if killed because of their identity, in a natural disaster, or while doing relief or health care work. For instance, İbrahim Bilgen, killed by Israel in the 2010 Gaza flotilla raid, is called a martyr by Al-Jazeera because he died as a humanitarian activist. Martyrdom is also tied to nationalism, as a martyr can be someone who died in a national struggle. In Beirut, Martyrs' Square is dedicated to Lebanese nationalists executed by the Ottomans. In Palestine, "martyr" traditionally means someone killed by Israeli forces, regardless of religion. Shireen Abu Akleh, a Palestinian Christian journalist killed by Israeli forces, is called a "martyr" in Arabic media, reflecting a belief that every Palestinian death is part of resistance against Israeli occupation. Children are also called martyrs, such as the children of journalist Wael Al-Dahdouh, killed in an Israeli airstrike. The label is used to memorialize the dead within a narrative, as when victims of the 2020 Beirut explosion were called "martyrs of corruption" in protest. This wide usage is not limited to Arabic; Armenian culture uses the term for victims of the Armenian genocide, called Holy Martyrs, with April 24 recognized as Armenian Genocide Memorial Day, also called "Armenian Martyrs Day."

In Chinese culture, martyrdom was extensively promoted by the Tongmenghui and the Kuomintang party. Revolutionaries who died fighting the Qing dynasty in the Xinhai Revolution and throughout the Republic of China period, advancing the revolution, were recognized as martyrs.

In Sikhism, martyrdom (*shahadat* in Punjabi) is a fundamental concept, representing an important institution of the faith. Sikhs believe in *Ibaadat se Shahadat* (from love to martyrdom). Famous Sikh martyrs include Guru Arjan, the fifth leader, who was tortured for nearly five days before attaining *shaheedi*; Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth guru, martyred on 11 November 1675, known as *Dharam Di Chadar* ("the shield of Religion") for giving his life to save Hinduism; Bhai Dayala, martyred at Chandni Chowk in Delhi in November 1675 for refusing to accept Islam; Bhai Mati Das, considered one of the greatest Sikh martyrs, martyred at Chandni Chowk in November 1675 to save Hindu Brahmins; Bhai Sati Das, also considered one of the greatest, martyred alongside Guru Teg Bahadur at Chandni Chowk in November 1675 to save Kashmiri Pandits; and Sahibzada Ajit Singh and Sahibzada Jujhar Singh.