Medieval philosophy

Medieval philosophy covers the intellectual work done during the Middle Ages, a span that runs roughly from the 5th-century collapse of the Western Roman Empire through the 13th and 14th centuries, when the Renaissance was underway. This tradition of independent philosophical thought first emerged in two places: Baghdad, around the middle of the 8th century, and the mobile court of Charlemagne in Aachen, during the last quarter of that same century. Two major forces shaped it: the recovery of classical Greek and Roman culture, and the necessity of grappling with theological questions while merging religious teachings with worldly knowledge. For Jewish, Christian, and Muslim thinkers of the time, the central concern was understanding God.

Scholars typically split the history of medieval philosophy into two phases. The first covers the Latin West from the early Middle Ages up to the 12th century, a period when the works of Plato and Aristotle were rediscovered, translated, and examined. The second is the "golden age" of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries in the Latin West, when the recovery of ancient philosophy reached its peak, Arabic commentaries on those works were absorbed, and major advances occurred in philosophy of religion, logic, and metaphysics.

Renaissance humanists later dismissed the high medieval Scholastic period, calling it a barbaric "middle period" sandwiched between the classical era and its rebirth. Modern historians, however, see the medieval era as a time of genuine philosophical growth, deeply shaped by Christian theology. One of its most prominent figures, Thomas Aquinas, never called himself a philosopher and criticized philosophers for always "falling short of the true and proper wisdom." The key issues debated throughout this period included the relationship between faith and reason, the nature and existence of God, the aims of theology and metaphysics, and problems concerning knowledge, universals, and individuation.

**Characteristics**

Theology dominated medieval philosophy. Apart from Avicenna and Averroes, most medieval thinkers did not see themselves as philosophers—that label was reserved for ancient pagans like Plato and Aristotle. Yet these thinkers employed the methods and logical tools of ancient philosophy to tackle difficult theological questions and doctrinal points. Thomas Aquinas, following Peter Damian, described philosophy as the handmaiden of theology (*philosophia ancilla theologiae*). Still, this subordinate role did not stop medievals from developing original and innovative philosophical ideas within their theological frameworks. Augustine of Hippo, for instance, made groundbreaking contributions to the philosophy of time, while Aquinas did the same in metaphysics.

Three principles guided nearly all medieval philosophers: using logic, dialectic, and analysis to uncover truth (called *ratio*); respecting the insights of ancient thinkers, especially Aristotle, and deferring to their authority (*auctoritas*); and coordinating philosophical findings with theological teaching and revelation (*concordia*). The debate over faith versus reason was especially intense. Avicenna and Averroes leaned toward reason. Augustine declared he would never let his philosophical inquiries go beyond God's authority. Anselm tried to defend faith against what he saw as attacks on it, adopting an approach that allowed room for both faith and reason. The Augustinian solution to this dilemma was to believe first and then seek understanding (*fides quaerens intellectum*), a mantra embraced by Christian thinkers, particularly the Scholastics Albert the Great, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas.

**History**

**Early medieval Christian philosophy**

The exact boundaries of the early medieval period are debated, but scholars generally agree it begins with Augustine (354–430)—who technically belongs to the classical era—and ends with the lasting revival of learning in the late 11th century, just before the high medieval period. After the Roman Empire's revival, Western Europe entered the so-called Dark Ages. Monasteries became rare centers of formal academic learning, likely because a rule of St. Benedict from 525 required monks to read the Bible daily and suggested giving each monk a book at the start of Lent. Later, monasteries also trained administrators and church officials.

Early Christian thought, especially during the patristic period, tended to be intuitive and mystical, relying less on reason and logical argument. It emphasized Plato's often-mystical doctrines rather than Aristotle's systematic thinking, much of which was unknown in the West at the time. Scholars depended on Boethius's Latin translations of Aristotle's *Categories* and *On Interpretation*, as well as his translation of Porphyry's *Isagoge*, a commentary on Aristotle's *Categories*.

Two Roman philosophers heavily influenced medieval philosophy: Augustine and Boethius. Augustine is considered the greatest of the Church Fathers. Though primarily a theologian and devotional writer, much of his work is philosophical, revolving around truth, God, the human soul, sin, and salvation. For over a thousand years, there was...